Decisions

In a theoretical model of decision making, a decision is defined as the process of selecting one option from among a group of options for implementation. Decisions are formed by a decision maker, the one who actually chooses the final option, in conjunction with a decision unit, all of those in the organization around the decision maker who take part in the process. In this theoretical model, <range type="comment" id="565572251_9">the members</range id="565572251_9"> of the decision unit react to an <range type="comment" id="565572251_10">unidentified</range id="565572251_10"> problem <range type="comment" id="565572251_11">by studying</range id="565572251_11"> the problem, <range type="comment" id="565572251_12">determining</range id="565572251_12"> the objectives of the organization, formulating options, evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of each of the options, and reaching a <range type="comment" id="565572251_13">conclusion</range id="565572251_13">. Many different factors can <range type="comment" id="565572251_14">have an effect on</range id="565572251_14"> the decision, <range type="comment" id="565572251_15">including </range id="565572251_15">the nature of the problem itself, <range type="comment" id="565843573_1">external forces</range id="565843573_1"> <range type="comment" id="565843573_2">exerting</range id="565843573_2"> an <range type="comment" id="565843573_3">influence</range id="565843573_3"> on the organization,<range type="comment" id="565843573_4"> the internal dynamics </range id="565843573_4">of the decision unit, and the <range type="comment" id="565843573_5">personality</range id="565843573_5"> of the decision maker. <range type="comment" id="565843573_6">Additionally</range id="565843573_6">, when a <range type="comment" id="565843573_7">decision must be made</range id="565843573_7"> in a crisis situation, <range type="comment" id="565843573_8">both</range id="565843573_8"> stress and the <range type="comment" id="565843573_9">speed</range id="565843573_9"> at which <range type="comment" id="565843573_10">events</range id="565843573_10"> <range type="comment" id="565843573_11">are progressing</range id="565843573_11"> can have an effect, often a negative one, on the decision process.

<range type="comment" id="565843573_12">During recent years</range id="565843573_12">, decision making has been <range type="comment" id="565843573_13">studied</range id="565843573_13"> systematically by <range type="comment" id="565843573_14">drawing</range id="565843573_14"> from such <range type="comment" id="565843573_15">diverse</range id="565843573_15"> areas of <range type="comment" id="565843573_16">study</range id="565843573_16"> as psychology, sociology, business, <range type="comment" id="565843573_17">government</range id="565843573_17">, history, mathematics, and statistics. Analyses of decisions often <range type="comment" id="565843573_18">emphasize</range id="565843573_18"> one of three principal <range type="comment" id="565843573_19">conceptual</range id="565843573_19"> perspectives (though often the <range type="comment" id="565843573_20">approach</range id="565843573_20"> that is <range type="comment" id="565843573_21">actually</range id="565843573_21"> <range type="comment" id="565843573_22">employed</range id="565843573_22"> is <range type="comment" id="565843573_23">somewhat</range id="565843573_23"> <range type="comment" id="565843573_24">eclectic</range id="565843573_24">).

In the oldest of the three approaches, decisions are made by a rational <range type="comment" id="565843573_25">actor</range id="565843573_25">, who makes a <range type="comment" id="565843573_26">particular</range id="565843573_26"> decision directly and <range type="comment" id="565843573_27">purposefully</range id="565843573_27"> in <range type="comment" id="565843573_28">response</range id="565843573_28"> to a specific <range type="comment" id="565843573_29">threat</range id="565843573_29"> from the <range type="comment" id="565843573_30">external environment</range id="565843573_30">. It is <range type="comment" id="565843573_31">assumed</range id="565843573_31"> that this rational actor <range type="comment" id="565843573_32">has clear objectives in mind</range id="565843573_32">, <range type="comment" id="565843573_33">develops</range id="565843573_33"> numerous <range type="comment" id="565843573_34">reasonable</range id="565843573_34"> options, <range type="comment" id="565843573_35">considers</range id="565843573_35"> <range type="comment" id="565843573_36">the advantages and disadvantages</range id="565843573_36"> of each option carefully, chooses the best option after <range type="comment" id="565843573_37">careful</range id="565843573_37"> analysis, and then <range type="comment" id="565843573_38">proceeds</range id="565843573_38"> to <range type="comment" id="565843573_39">implement it fully</range id="565843573_39">. A <range type="comment" id="565843573_40">variation</range id="565843573_40"> of the rational actor model is a decision maker who is a <range type="comment" id="565843573_41">satisfier</range id="565843573_41">, one who <range type="comment" id="565843573_42">selects</range id="565843573_42"> the first <range type="comment" id="565843573_43">satisfactory</range id="565843573_43"> option rather than <range type="comment" id="565843573_44">continuing</range id="565843573_44"> the decision-making process <range type="comment" id="565843573_45">until</range id="565843573_45"> the optimal decision<range type="comment" id="565843573_46"> has been reached.</range id="565843573_46">

A second <range type="comment" id="565843573_47">perspective</range id="565843573_47"> <range type="comment" id="565843573_48">places an emphasis</range id="565843573_48"> on the <range type="comment" id="565843573_49">impact </range id="565843573_49">of <range type="comment" id="565843573_50">routines</range id="565843573_50"> on decisions <range type="comment" id="565843573_51">within</range id="565843573_51"> organizations. It <range type="comment" id="565843573_52">demonstrates</range id="565843573_52"> how organizational structures and routines such <range type="comment" id="565843573_53">as standard operating procedures</range id="565843573_53"> <range type="comment" id="565843573_54">tend to limit</range id="565843573_54"> the decision-making process<range type="comment" id="565843573_55"> in a variety of ways,</range id="565843573_55"> <range type="comment" id="565843573_56">perhaps</range id="565843573_56"> by <range type="comment" id="565843573_57">restricting the information available</range id="565843573_57"> to the decision unit, by restricting the <range type="comment" id="565843573_58">breadth</range id="565843573_58"> of options among which the decision unit may choose, or by <range type="comment" id="565843573_59">inhibiting</range id="565843573_59"> the <range type="comment" id="565843573_60">ability</range id="565843573_60"> of the organization to <range type="comment" id="565843573_61">implement</range id="565843573_61"> the decision quickly and effectively <range type="comment" id="565843573_62">once it has been taken.</range id="565843573_62"><range type="comment" id="565843573_63"> Pre-planned</range id="565843573_63"> routines and standard <range type="comment" id="565843573_64">operating procedures</range id="565843573_64"> are <range type="comment" id="565843573_65"><range type="comment" id="565843573_68">essential</range id="565843573_68"></range id="565843573_65"> to coordinate the <range type="comment" id="565843573_66"><range type="comment" id="565843573_69">efforts</range id="565843573_69"></range id="565843573_66"> of large numbers of people in <range type="comment" id="565843573_70">massive</range id="565843573_70"> organizations. However, these <range type="comment" id="565843573_67">same</range id="565843573_67"> routines and <range type="comment" id="565843573_71">procedures</range id="565843573_71"> can also have an <range type="comment" id="565843573_72">inhibiting</range id="565843573_72"> effect on the <range type="comment" id="565843573_73">ability</range id="565843573_73"> of the organization <range type="comment" id="565843573_74">to arrive at optimal decisions</range id="565843573_74"> and <range type="comment" id="565843573_75">implement</range id="565843573_75"> them <range type="comment" id="565843573_76">efficiently</range id="565843573_76">.<range type="comment" id="565843573_77"> In this sort of</range id="565843573_77"> decision-making process, organizations <range type="comment" id="565843573_78">tend to take not the optimal decision</range id="565843573_78"> but the decision <range type="comment" id="565843573_79">that best fits within</range id="565843573_79"> the <range type="comment" id="565843573_80">permitted operating parameters</range id="565843573_80"> <range type="comment" id="565843573_81">outlined by </range id="565843573_81">the organization.

A third <range type="comment" id="565843573_82">conceptual perspective</range id="565843573_82"> <range type="comment" id="565843573_83">emphasizes</range id="565843573_83"> the internal dynamics of the decision unit and <range type="comment" id="565843573_84">the extent to which</range id="565843573_84"> decisions are based on political <range type="comment" id="565843573_85">forces</range id="565843573_85"> within the organization. This <range type="comment" id="565843573_86">perspective </range id="565843573_86"><range type="comment" id="565843573_87">demonstrates</range id="565843573_87"> how <range type="comment" id="565843573_88">bargaining</range id="565843573_88"> among individuals who have different interests and motives and varying <range type="comment" id="565843573_89">levels of power</range id="565843573_89"> in the decision unit <range type="comment" id="565843573_90">leads to </range id="565843573_90"><range type="comment" id="565843573_91">eventual</range id="565843573_91"> compromise that is not <range type="comment" id="565843573_92">the preferred choice</range id="565843573_92"><range type="comment" id="565843573_93"> of any of the members </range id="565843573_93">of the decision unit.

Each of these three <range type="comment" id="565843573_94">perspectives </range id="565843573_94">on the decision-making process demonstrates <range type="comment" id="565843573_95">a different point of view </range id="565843573_95">on decision making, a different <range type="comment" id="565843573_96">lens</range id="565843573_96"> <range type="comment" id="565843573_97">through which</range id="565843573_97"> the decision-making process <range type="comment" id="565843573_98">can be observed</range id="565843573_98">.<range type="comment" id="565843573_99"> It is safe to say</range id="565843573_99"> that decision making <range type="comment" id="565843573_100">in most organizations</range id="565843573_100"> <range type="comment" id="565843573_101">shows marked influences</range id="565843573_101"> from each perspective; i.e., an organization <range type="comment" id="565843573_102">strives to </range id="565843573_102">get <range type="comment" id="565843573_103">as close as possible</range id="565843573_103"> to the <range type="comment" id="565843573_104">rational model in its decisions</range id="565843573_104">, <range type="comment" id="565843573_105">yet</range id="565843573_105"> the internal routines and dynamics of the organization <range type="comment" id="565843573_106">come into play in the decision</range id="565843573_106">.











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